The Copernican Revolution

The Copernican Revolution Introduction Modern science can be said to have its roots from the Copernican theory, though it was received with uncertainty by the Copernicans prior to the seventeenth century (Curd 3). Most of the scientists in the sixteenth century believe Ptolemy’s theory of Earth-centered astronomy, as well as Tycho Brahe’s theory of Geoheliocentric system. The reluctance of early scientists in accepting the Copernican theory makes their later approval raise a few questions about the other theories (Curd 3).Advertising We will write a custom essay sample on The Copernican Revolution specifically for you for only $16.05 $11/page Learn More One big question posed by this shift of mind is why and when the Copernican theory gained approval over the Ptolemaic theory. Current reviews of the ideas previously adopted as explanations of the change of beliefs have been found to be unsatisfactory. The Copernican theory had been found to be more precise in its foreca sts and clear-cut than the Ptolemaic, which is not the case today (Curd 3). Reasons for accepting the Copernican theory One of the reasons as to why the Copernican theory was accepted is that it satisfied the â€Å"taste† of people, who disregarded rationale and facts. This harsh conclusion by Thomas Kuhn was challenged by Zahar and Lakatos, who argued that the research undertaken for the Copernican programme was empirically precise (Curd 3). The empirical progression of the Copernican theory was based on its essential geometric configuration, which had adequate projecting capabilities. Lakatos and Zahar later edited the conception of a novel fact, stating that it was not necessary for it to be unfamiliar, but it should not have been acknowledged in the formation of the theory (Curd 3). Glymour was also in support of the Copernican theory, compared to the Ptolemaic one, stating that the latter was objectively inferior. The superiority of the former theory was observed in its capability to validate and be analyzed by the facts of that time based on positional astronomy (Curd 4). Comparing the Heliocentric and Ptolemaic theories Support on the validity of the heliocentric theory has been from various scientists, like Millman and Hall, who found it satisfying before the discoveries by Newton and Galileo (Curd 4). The book on testing and confirmation of theories by Glymour looks at the two theories comparatively; that is the geocentric and the heliocentric theories. Glymour and Zahar believe to have been contributors to the understanding of the heliocentric theory, in terms of its methodical logic, harmony and accord, as expressed by other authors like Rheticus, which is contrary to the belief that the theory was irrational, as put forward by Kuhn (Curd 4). One way to compare the two theories is by using the equation (1), 1/T p = 1/T e -+ 1/S p where T is the heliocentric period of planet P, Te is the heliocentric period of Earth and S is the time interval between successive episodes of retrograde motion as viewed from earth. When the planet is superior, the sign in the equation is used, while + is used for an inferior planet (Curd 5). Inferior planets are Mercury and Venus. The Copernican theory works with an excess of three planets on the superior side, while the Ptolemaic theory works with the superior planets only. The Ptolemaic theory also fails to explain the relationship between the motion of the planets and the solar component.Advertising Looking for essay on astronomy? Let's see if we can help you! Get your first paper with 15% OFF Learn More The Copernican theory offers various explanations unlike the Ptolemaic theory (Curd 5). One of the things enlightened by the Copernican theory is the progressively diminishing value of S, as the distance of the planet from earth increases, irrespective of the direction (Curd 5). The limits of the Ptolemaic theory do not allow for the determination of the displa cement of planets from earth. Aristotle defended one of the theories in the Ptolemaic theory that states that the period of a planet is proportional to the size of its orbit (Curd 6). In the heliocentric theory, the distances are obtained with reference to the distance between the planets and centre of revolution, which is actually the sun. These displacements that are predetermined are used as a basis for the order assignments, which is an indication of harmony and order, characteristics of Copernican theory, and lacking in the Ptolemaic theory (Curd 6). Bases on the tests conducted between the two theories, the Copernican theory emerges as the better one with greater explanatory power. The tests were based on the same positional data (Curd 6). The Tychonic theory The Copernican revolution was defined as the change of belief from the Ptolemaic theory to the Copernican theory. The revolution was dependent on two decisions namely the denunciation of the Ptolemaic theory as untrue, an d the recognition of the Copernican theory as correct (Curd 6). The prudence of either choice is not explained by the positional data due to the effect of two factors namely the Tychonic theory, a third alternative theory, and the existence of vital drawbacks to the Copernican theory. The Tychonic theory was published towards the end of the sixteenth century by Brahe. This theory suggests a geoheliocentric array whereby the earth is static and at the centre (Curd 6). The sun and the planets are said to revolve around the earth. Therefore, the planets have the orbit of the sun as their deferent, and their major epicycle is the heliocentric orbits. Unlike the Ptolemaic theory, the Tychonic system is comparable to the Copernican theory, both kinematically and geometrically (Curd 6). The Tychonic theory is like the Copernican theory in that in spite of its two centers of revolution, it provides for the derivation of equation 1, and the calculation of the displacement of the planets from the sun (Curd 7). The Copernican theory had two main problems namely the perceptible proof that the earth is static, and the lack of noticeable stellar parallax.Advertising We will write a custom essay sample on The Copernican Revolution specifically for you for only $16.05 $11/page Learn More These problems were unique to the Copernican theory, since the other two theories were geostatic. The scientists in support of the Copernican theory argued that the two problems were contradicting with the requirements of the theory, which are two terrestrial motions. The writings of Galileo, in the early seventeenth century were sufficient to disregard the Ptolemaic theory, though the issues in the other two theories remained (Curd 7). Semi-Tychonic systems appeared in the 16th and 17th centuries and believed that the earth rotated, but did not revolve around the sun (Curd 7). The semi- Tychonic theory was accepted since it enjoyed similar merits with those of the C opernican theory, as well as its simplicity, which made sure to ignore the independent motion of every celestial body. This was especially beneficial in its acceptance after the discovery of Newton’s first law of motion, which defines the forces that maintain a body in circular motion (Curd 7). Conclusion The acceptance of the Copernican theory was supported by both observation and acceptance on its scale of rationality as was seen in the Tychonic alternatives (Curd 8). One deduction observed in the determination of the validity of the theories is that the scientists who support the law focus a lot of their energy and time to build on it, and therefore defend it from harsh criticism, and non-believers (Curd 8). The justification of any theory is only dependent on scientific analysis, to solve any mysterious questions and doubt in people (Curd 8). Curd, Martin V. The Rationality of the Copernican Revolution. PSA: Proceedings of the Biennial Meeting of the Philosophy of Scienc e Association (1982): 1, 3-13.

I, Too essays

I, Too essays Title Black race is integral in America ParaphraseIm American (American pride). I represent the other half, and now you ignore me but I am getting stronger, and soon I wont be sent away, and then you will see how beautiful I am and regret sending me away because I too am American. Figurative language Darker brother is a symbol of the black race. Brother brings to mind the idea of America s a family. He is the other half of the integral relationship of brotherhood. Send me away when company comes brings about the idea of an embarrassing part of the family not to be talked of (for example a drunken step uncle). But I laugh and grow stronger -instead of letting the attempts to ostracize him ferment anger, he shakes it off and uses it for motivation for becoming more recognized, respectable, and qualifiedto become a more valuable member of the family. Tomorrow Ill be at the table, tomorrow represents a time in the near future when blacks will have equality. The table represents accomplishment, for it is where one is served. This can also mean the simple fact that he who sends the black man away or hides him today will still have to see him tomorrow. The table represents accomplishment and serves as a place of coming together (black and white). Tone The tone towards the black audience is uplifting and encouraging. It is intended to arouse feelings of support and pride for the black movement. Although towards any racist whites who read it, the tone is admonitory. This message is a polite warning of impending equality in spite of all attempts to stop the black movement. ...

Medecine and Intellectual Property Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2000 words

Medecine and Intellectual Property - Essay Example It believes the recognition and understanding where both parties are coming is a vital first step to soften the impact of the conflict until a happy compromise is found. For large pharmaceutical companies investing billions of dollars to continually develop new medicines against diseases, it provides the necessary incentives in the form of patents to provide wider latitude in the development, promotion, and distribution of new drugs to recoup their investments and earn significant revenues for years of research and hard work. It also serves as an incentive for pharmaceutical companies to develop new products for the prevention or treatment of common as well as dreaded diseases. But for low-income countries struggling to provide basic healthcare services and affordable drugs to their citizens, intellectual property is an onerous imposition that threatens to wreck lives in the wake of killer diseases, like pneumonia, HIV/AID, tuberculosis, hypertension, and measles that claim 37,000 men, women, and children everyday (WHO, 2005). The same report said more than one third of the world's population lacked regular access to essential drugs. Every year, millions of children and adults in developing countries around the world still die from common diseases that could be readily treated by drug therapies, and more economically cured with generic drugs. HEATED DEBATE The law on intellectual property rights allows pharmaceutical companies unrestricted rights to manufacture and distribute medicines at prices they command Without access to the drugs in the treatment of HIV, for example, to combat the spread of the dreaded disease, people from many countries in Africa experiencing an HIV/AIDS pandemic will die in record number. AIDS has killed more than 25 million people since it was first recognized on December 1, 1981, making it one of the most destructive pandemics in recorded history. According to current estimates, HIV is set to infect 90 million people in Africa, providing an enormous market for an anti-HIV medicine. There is currently no vaccine or cure for HIV or AIDS. The only known method of prevention is avoiding exposure to the virus. However, an antiretroviral treatment, known as post-exposure prophylaxis is believed to reduce the risk of infection if begun directly after exposure. Current treatment for HIV infection consists of highly active antiretroviral therapy, or HAART, an expensive procedure that many poor countries in Africa are forced to take. Non-African countries, like the Philippines, may not suffer as much as the Africans in terms of exposure to dreaded diseases, but they are also victims of expensively priced medicine. Pharmaceutical giant Pfizer, invoking its patent rights, recently filed an infringement lawsuit against the Philippines for its plan to import a generic and cheaper version of Norvasc in India. Norvasc is a maintenance medicine for people with heart condition. For